This document gives an introduction to computing and visualizing various Abelian networks in Julia.
For a tutorial on installing Julia and setting up Jupyter notebooks see here. For a general introduction to Julia from the viewpoint of Linear Algebra, check out this page.
See here for model definitions and more information.
Download the code used to generate this notebook here.
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using Plots # for visualization to install type in ] add Plots
Abelian Sandpile¶
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#######################
## Description
## computes the stabilization of the 2-dimensional
## sandpile on a square
## Inputs
## S: an array of integers specifying the initial condition
## Output
## returns odometer, T, sandpile S is stabilized in place
function stabilize!(S)
#initialize the all 0 odometer
T = fill(0, size(S))
#iterate over all sites and try to topple
#until it is not possible anymore
isTopple = true;
while(isTopple)
isTopple = false
for y in 1:size(S,2)
for x in 1:size(S,1)
isTopple = isTopple | topple!(S,T,x,y)
end
end
end
return T;
end
## fire a single site in S once
## i.e. increment odometer
## remove chips from S[x,y]
## and give chips to neighbors
## (x+1,y), (x-1,y), (x,y+1), (x,y-1)
function topple!(S,T,x,y)
#number of times fire site (x,y)
#we take max in case there is a hole at (x,y)
z = max(floor(S[x,y]/4), 0)
#increment the odometer
T[x,y]+=z
S[x,y]-=4*z;
#give sand to each neighbor
if(x > 1)
S[x-1,y]+=z
end
if(x < size(S,1))
S[x+1,y]+=z
end
if(y > 1)
S[x,y-1]+=z
end
if(y < size(S,2))
S[x,y+1]+=z
end
#if we have toppled return true
#else return false
if(z > 0)
return true;
else
return false
end
end
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Abelian sandpile examples¶
We compute several examples of Abelian sandpiles using the above function.
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N = 50
S = fill(4,N,N)
T = stabilize!(S)
heatmap(S)
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In [103]:
N = 200
S = fill(1,N,N)
S[div(N,2),div(N,2)]+=N^2
T = stabilize!(S); #will take a couple of seconds
S[T.==0].=-1;
heatmap(S)
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In [104]:
N = 200
S = rand(0:1,N,N)
init_condition = copy(S)
S[div(N,2),div(N,2)]+=N^2
T = stabilize!(S) #will take a couple of seconds
S = S .- init_condition
S[T.==0].=-1;
heatmap(S)
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Efficient computation of symmetric Abelian sandpiles in arbitrary dimensions¶
If you have access to a GPU and want to compute large symmetric (e.g. single-source, constant, ...) sandpiles in Zd see code here. This code uses symmetry of the initial condition to reduce to computing the sandpile on the simplex, SM={(x1,…,xd)∈Zd|M≤x1≤⋯≤xd≤1}. In high dimensions, computing sandpiles on the simplex improves space complexity by a factor of dd. This reduction in size also leads to a faster algorithm when using parallelization.
For example, an NVDIA RTX 2080 TI can compute the sandpile on Z4 started with 230 chips at the origin in about a day:
Exploding sandpiles¶
We visualize exploding sandpiles via the parallel toppling procedure. First we modify the above code to perform parallel updates, then look at two examples of parallel toppling sandpiles.
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#######################
## Description
## computes num_iter parallel topple updates of a sandpile on a square
## Inputs
## S: an array of integers specifying the sandpile
## T: an array of integers specifying current odometer
## num_iters: an integer specifying how many parallel update steps to take
## Output
## sandpile S is updated in place
function parallel_topple!(S, T, num_iters)
for i in 1:num_iters
S_prev = copy(S)
for y in 1:size(S,2)
for x in 1:size(S,1)
one_topple!(S,S_prev,T,x,y)
end
end
end
end
## fire a single site in S once
## via the parallel update procedure
function one_topple!(S,S_prev, T,x,y)
## now topple according to how many
## grains it had at the PREVIOUS
## time step
z = max(floor(S_prev[x,y]/4), 0)
#number of times fire site (x,y)
#we take max in case there is a hole at (x,y)
#increment the odometer
T[x,y]+=z
S[x,y]-=4*z;
#give sand to each neighbor
if(x > 1)
S[x-1,y]+=z
end
if(x < size(S,1))
S[x+1,y]+=z
end
if(y > 1)
S[x,y-1]+=z
end
if(y < size(S,2))
S[x,y+1]+=z
end
end
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In [106]:
## start with all 4s everywhere in a square of side length 200
## and parallel topple for (25)^2 time steps
N = 100
S = fill(4,N,N)
T = fill(0,N,N)
parallel_topple!(S, T, (25)^2)
heatmap(S)
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In [107]:
## start with a checkerboard 2,3 in a square
## and parallel topple for (25)^2 time steps
N = 200
S = [2+(x+y)%2 for x in 1:N, y in 1:N]
T = fill(0,N,N)
#initial checkerboard
heatmap(S)
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In [108]:
#place M grains at the origin and parallel topple for M steps
## start with a checkerboard 2,3 in a square
## and parallel topple for (M) time steps
M = 50
S[div(N,2),div(N,2)]=M
parallel_topple!(S, T, M)
heatmap(S)
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In [109]:
#place another M grains at the origin and parallel topple for M steps
S[div(N,2),div(N,2)]+=M
parallel_topple!(S, T, M)
heatmap(S)
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Torus sandpiles¶
We set up the sandpile Markov chain on the discrete torus (Z∖MZ)2 and compute when an iid Bernoulli sandpile does not stabilize on the torus
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#######################
## Description
## computes the stabilization of the 2-dimensional
## sandpile on a TORUS if possible
## Inputs
## S: an array of integers specifying the initial condition
## Output
## returns true/false if stabilization was successful
## also returns the odometer
function stabilize_torus!(S)
#initialize the all 0 odometer
T = fill(0, size(S))
#iterate over all sites and try to topple
#until it is not possible anymore
isTopple = true;
while(isTopple && !(all(T.>0)))
isTopple = false
for y in 1:size(S,2)
for x in 1:size(S,1)
isTopple = isTopple | topple_torus!(S,T,x,y)
end
end
end
return !all(T.>0), T
end
## fire a single site in S once
## with torus boundary conditions
function topple_torus!(S,T,x,y)
#number of times fire site (x,y)
#we take max in case there is a hole at (x,y)
z = max(floor(S[x,y]/4), 0)
#increment the odometer
T[x,y]+=z
S[x,y]-=4*z;
#give sand to each neighbor
if(x > 1)
S[x-1,y]+=z
else
S[size(S,1),y]+=z
end
if(x < size(S,1))
S[x+1,y]+=z
else
S[1,y]+=z
end
if(y > 1)
S[x,y-1]+=z
else
S[x,size(S,2)]+=z
end
if(y < size(S,2))
S[x,y+1]+=z
else
S[x,1]+=z
end
#if we have toppled return true
#else return false
if(z > 0)
return true;
else
return false
end
end
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#the sandpile with 3 grains of sand + one extra chip is not stabilizable on the torus!
N = 10
S = fill(3,N,N)
S[1,1]+=1
isStable, T = stabilize_torus!(S)
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## compute empirical distribution of p when a 4*Bernoulli(p) sandpile fails to stabilize on N x N torus
num_p = 100
p_s = range(0,1,length=num_p)
N = 50
num_trials = 100
# vector to store first time you fail to stabilize
# over the
fail_p = fill(0.0, num_trials)
@time for i in 1:num_trials #will take a few seconds
max_p = 0
for p in p_s
S = 4*(rand(N,N).<p)
isStable, T = stabilize_torus!(S)
if(!isStable)
break;
end
max_p = p
end
fail_p[i] = max_p
end
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histogram(fail_p, label=false, title = "First p when Bernoulli(0,4,p) sandpile fails to stabilize")
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## how does this compare to the threshold when this sandpile begins to lose a macroscopic amount
## of sand to the sink?
dens_vec = fill(0.0, num_p)
mean_vec = fill(0.0,num_p)
for i in 1:num_p
p = p_s[i]
S = 4*(rand(N,N).<p)
mean_vec[i] = sum(S)/length(S)
stabilize!(S) #uses function defined above
dens_vec[i] = sum(S)/length(S)
end
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plot(p_s,dens_vec,label="terminal density", legend = :topleft, title = "Hockey stick conjecture")
plot!(p_s, mean_vec, label = "starting density")
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Divisible sandpile¶
We compute an approximation of the single-source divisible sandpile on Z2. This implementation is essentially Jacobi iteration for computing the solution to a linear equation.
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#######################
## Description
## computes an APPROXIMATION of
## the stabilization of the 2-dimensional
## DIVISIBLE sandpile on a square
## Inputs
## S: an array of real numbers specifying the initial condition
## Output
## returns odometer, T, sandpile S is "almost" stabilized in place with error eps
function stabilize_div!(S)
#initialize the all 0 odometer
T = fill(0.0, size(S))
eps = 0.01;
#iterate over all sites and topple until every site
#has fewer than 3 + eps grains of sand
while(!all(S.<3+eps))
for y in 1:size(S,2)
for x in 1:size(S,1)
topple_div!(S,T,x,y)
end
end
end
return T;
end
## excess mass, (S[x,y]-3)^+
## is divided equally and given to each neighbor
function topple_div!(S,T,x,y)
#number of times fire site (x,y)
z = max(S[x,y]-3,0)
#increment the odometer
T[x,y]+=z
S[x,y]-=z;
#give excess mas to each neighbor
if(x > 1)
S[x-1,y]+=z/4
end
if(x < size(S,1))
S[x+1,y]+=z/4
end
if(y > 1)
S[x,y-1]+=z/4
end
if(y < size(S,2))
S[x,y+1]+=z/4
end
end
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N = 50;
S = fill(0.0,N,N)
S[div(N,2),div(N,2)]+=N^2
T = stabilize_div!(S);
#notice some sites have 3+0.001 grains left
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heatmap(S)
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Internal DLA¶
We compute IDLA on Z2 starting with a stack of particles at the origin.
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#######################
## Description
## runs one iteration of IDLA with a walker
## starting at site (x,y) on background cluster
## Inputs
## cluster: an array of 0s and 1s specifying initial cluster
## start_x, start_y: indices into S where walker starts
## Output
## none; dynamics are performed in place
function runIDLA_walk!(cluster, start_x, start_y)
x = start_x;
y = start_y
while(true)
coin_flip = rand()
if(coin_flip < 1/4)
x = x + 1
elseif(coin_flip < 1/2)
x = x - 1
elseif(coin_flip < 3/4)
y = y + 1
elseif(coin_flip < 1)
y = y -1
end
#if walker exists domain stop
if(x < 1 || y < 1 || x > size(cluster,1) || y > size(cluster,2))
break;
end
#if walker is now at an empty site
#it stops
if(cluster[x,y] == 0)
cluster[x,y] = 1
break;
end
end
end
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In [120]:
N = 100
cluster = fill(0,N,N)
num_iters = (div(N,2))^2; #run IDLA for this many iterations
for i in 1:num_iters
runIDLA_walk!(cluster, div(N,2), div(N,2))
end
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heatmap(cluster)
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Spinner sandpile¶
We compute the quenched and annealed versions of N-S, E-W spinner sandpile starting with a stack of particles at the origin.
Annealed - toppling directions are resampled at every step¶
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#######################
## Description
## computes the stabilization of the 2-dimensional
## sandpile on a square using ANNEALED SPINNER toppling rules
## Inputs
## S: an array of integers specifying the initial condition
## Output
## returns odometer, T; sandpile S is stabilized in place
function stabilize_spin!(S)
#initialize the all 0 odometer
T = fill(0, size(S))
#iterate over all sites and try to topple
#until it is not possible anymore
isTopple = true;
while(isTopple)
isTopple = false
for y in 1:size(S,2)
for x in 1:size(S,1)
isTopple = isTopple | topple_spin!(S,T,x,y)
end
end
end
return T;
end
## fire a single site in S
## i.e. increment odometer
## remove 2 chips from S[x,y]
## and give chips to neighbors
## (x+1,y), (x-1,y) OR (x,y+1), (x,y-1)
## depending on outcome of fair coin flip
## continue until less than 2 chips at site S
function topple_spin!(S,T,x,y)
#number of times fire site (x,y)
#we take max in case there is a hole at (x,y)
z = max(floor(S[x,y]/2), 0)
#increment the odometer
T[x,y]+=z
S[x,y]-=2*z;
for i in 1:z
if(rand() < 1/2)
if(x > 1)
S[x-1,y]+=1
end
if(x < size(S,1))
S[x+1,y]+=1
end
else
if(y > 1)
S[x,y-1]+=1
end
if(y < size(S,2))
S[x,y+1]+=1
end
end
end
#if we have toppled return true
#else return false
if(z > 0)
return true;
else
return false
end
end
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In [123]:
N = 100
S = fill(0,N,N)
S[div(N,2),div(N,2)]+=div(N,2)^2
T = stabilize_spin!(S);
S[T.==0].=-1;
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heatmap(S)
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Quenched - toppling directions are fixed at the beginning¶
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#######################
## Description
## computes the stabilization of the 2-dimensional
## sandpile on a square using QUENCHED SPINNER toppling rules
## Inputs
## S: an array of integers specifying the initial condition
## Output
## returns odometer, T; sandpile S is stabilized in place
function stabilize_spin_quenched!(S)
#initialize the all 0 odometer
T = fill(0, size(S))
#initialize the toppling directions
dir_mat = rand(size(S,1), size(S,2))
#iterate over all sites and try to topple
#until it is not possible anymore
isTopple = true;
while(isTopple)
isTopple = false
for y in 1:size(S,2)
for x in 1:size(S,1)
isTopple = isTopple | topple_spin_quenched!(S,T,x,y, dir_mat)
end
end
end
return T;
end
## fire a single site in S
## i.e. increment odometer
## remove 2 chips from S[x,y]
## and give chips to neighbors
## (x+1,y), (x-1,y) OR (x,y+1), (x,y-1)
## depending on quenched toppling direction dir_mat
## continue until less than 2 chips at site S
function topple_spin_quenched!(S,T,x,y,dir_mat)
#number of times fire site (x,y)
#we take max in case there is a hole at (x,y)
z = max(floor(S[x,y]/2), 0)
#increment the odometer
T[x,y]+=z
S[x,y]-=2*z;
if(dir_mat[x,y] < 1/2)
if(x > 1)
S[x-1,y]+=z
end
if(x < size(S,1))
S[x+1,y]+=z
end
else
if(y > 1)
S[x,y-1]+=z
end
if(y < size(S,2))
S[x,y+1]+=z
end
end
#if we have toppled return true
#else return false
if(z > 0)
return true;
else
return false
end
end
Out[125]:
In [126]:
N = 200
S = fill(0,N,N)
S[div(N,2),div(N,2)]+=div(N,2)^2
T = stabilize_spin_quenched!(S);
S[T.==0].=-1;
In [127]:
heatmap(S)
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Activated random walk¶
We compute activated random walk on Z2 starting with a stack of particles at the origin.
In [128]:
#######################
## Description
## runs ARW starting with A active particles
## and S sleeping particles on Z^2 until
## every particle is sleeping
## Inputs
## A: an array of integers - initial active walkers
## S: an array of integers - initial sleeping walkers
## T: an array of integers - initial odometer
## lambda: real number sleep rate
## Output
## none - dynamics are performed in-place
function stabilize_arw!(A,S,T, lambda)
isTopple = true;
while(isTopple)
isTopple = false
for x in 1:size(A,1)
for y in 1:size(A,2)
if(A[x,y] > 0)
topple_arw!(A,S,T, lambda,x,y)
isTopple = true;
end
end
end
end
end
#one active walker at site x,y
function topple_arw!(A,S,T, lambda,x,y)
## wake up every particle at the site
A[x,y]=A[x,y]+S[x,y]
S[x,y]=0
#each particle moves or falls asleep
for i in 1:length(A[x,y])
A[x,y]-=1
T[x,y]+=1
if(rand() < lambda/(1+lambda))
#go to sleep
S[x,y]+=1
else
#flip a coin to decide where the walker moves
coin_flip = rand()
if(coin_flip < 1/4)
if(x < size(A,1))
A[x+1,y]+=1
end
elseif(coin_flip < 1/2)
if(x > 1)
A[x-1,y]+=1
end
elseif(coin_flip < 3/4)
if(y < size(A,2))
A[x,y+1]+=1
end
else
if(y > 1)
A[x,y-1]+=1
end
end
end
end
end
Out[128]:
In [129]:
N=100
lambda = 1; ## sleeping rate
A = fill(0,N,N) #active particles
S = fill(0,N,N) #sleeping particles
T = fill(0,N,N) #odometer
A[div(N,2),div(N,2)]+=(div(N,2))^2
@time stabilize_arw!(A,S,T,lambda);
S[T.==0].=-1;
In [130]:
heatmap(S)
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